References:

Course Module

Biopsychologic and Psychobiologic Interactions

The state of the body may result in changes in the mind; body affects mind, while the state of the mind may result in changes in the body; mind affects body.

Biological State	Resulting Psychological State
Increased Blood Pressure	Mood Changes, Anxiety, Depression
Severe Pain	Reduced Concentration and Attention, Anxiety
Chronic Illness	Depression, Emotional Instability, Mood Changes, Anxiety, Altered Perception and Cognition
Brain Chemistry Imbalances	Alteration in Thinking, Behavior, Moods, and Cognitive Functions
Endocrine Dysfunction	Lethargy, Mood Changes, Anxiety

Psychological State	Resulting Biological State
Unpleasant Emotions	Irritability, Insomnia, Headaches, etc.
Stress	Headache, Tachycardia, Appetite Changes, Digestive Distress, Higher frequency of infections or sickness
Anxiety	Palpitations, Chest Pain, Headache, Increase risk for Hypertension and Heart Disease
Emotional Conflicts	Peptic Ulcers, Ulcerative Colitis, etc.
Deep Thinking	Physical Strain; Alteration in Sleeping and Eating Patterns, Fatigability

Bases of Behavior

Biological Basis

Behavior is influenced by biology (biophysical basis of behavior). There is a genetic basis for all behaviors and variance in what we think and feel. Most behavior has an adaptive or evolutionary function, and have their origins in specific locations of the brain.

Heritability is also a factor, where some traits are more readily inherited through genetics than other traits. As such, the “nature” aspect of some traits are demonstrated in identical twins (identical genetics) than in fraternal twins (same level of similarity as normal siblings). Inversely, some traits may differ even in identical twins as they may have different habits, friends, schools, etc. This highlights the “nurture” aspect of growth and development.

Mental disorders may also be heritable. Among the most commonly inherited disorders is schizophrenia with ~80% heritability.

Disorder	Heritability
Schizophrenia	80%
Alcoholism	50%
Antisocial Behavior	41%
Panic Attacks	30% to 40%
Anxiety Disorders	30%
Phobias	20% to 40%

Environmental Basis

All influences outside of genetics fall under the “Environment” (environmental basis of behavior). It starts right after conception until death, covering social, moral, economical, political, physical, and intellectual factors. The negative environment of children living in poverty almost always played a greater role in their future success than genetics. For children in middle or upper-class homes, genetics were vital for future success.

Psychological Basis

Psychological traits such as personality types result in different actions and behaviors to given situations depending on psychological development and cultural setting.

Family Dynamics

The functioning of a family in good and bad situations. This involves decision-making, problem solving, and sharing feelings. There are various types of family structures:

Nuclear: parents and children
Single Parent Families: one parent and children
Extended Family: the same as nuclear + non-first degree relatives
Childless Family
Grandparent Family: grandparents take care of grandchildren
Stepfamily

The culture of the family, with an emphasis on family values (traditions, habits, practices, values) and identity, can affect family dynamics. It is very important for families to acknowledge cultural differences within their own dynamic systems, such as age, geography, gender roles, personality types, and family strengths.

It is theorized that birth order also affects family dynamics, as stated by Alfred Adler:

Single Children: tend to receive full attention, may be overprotected and spoiled.
- They become attached to being the center of attention, preferring adult company, and have difficulty in sharing with others.
Eldest Children: tend to be required to learn how to share. Expectations are often high, causing a trend towards authoritarian and strict approaches.
- They feel powerful and often require encouragement to be helpful.
Youngest Children: may see every other sibling as a surrogate mother or father figure. Their role as the obedient follower, following what they are told to do and when, is never removed.
- This may cause the child to want to “grow up” faster and make big plans that may never come true.
Middle Child: due to eldest children receiving responsibility, and the youngest potentially being spoiled, middle children may feel like they don’t get enough attention.
- They fight for significance and privilege, creating a “black-and-white” attitude. They are even-tempered and fight to protect the social justice of others, but may feel lonely.
Twins: one twin often gets a higher standing than the other; they may be more active, and becomes a “leader” while the other becomes a “follower”.
- There may be some identity problems.
Ghost Child: children born to families where the first child died before they were born. This may cause over-protectiveness, most often for the oldest child.
- These children often become rebellious or exploitative of the protection for personal gain.
Adopted Child: often receives the same level of attention an only child receives, as parents attempt to compensate for the child’s loss of biological parents.
- The child may become demanding, lacking in self-confidence, and may even resent their family.

Needs and Behavior

“Needs” are internal motives that energize, direct, and sustain behavior. These are strivings necessary for the maintenance of life e.g. physiological needs and for the promotion of growth and wellbeing.

Abraham Harold Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological: breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion
Safety: security of body, of employment, of resources, of morality, of the family, of health, and of property.
Love/Belonging: friendship, family, and sexual intimacy.
Esteem: self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others and by others.
Self-Actualization: morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts.
- Self actualization is a person’s motivation to reach his or her full potential. Previous needs must be met before self-actualization can be achieved.

Conflicts and Frustrations

“Conflict” is a painful emotional state that results from tension, opposition, and contradiction (Douglas, Holland). It is brought by the presence of two or more opposing desires in an individual (Barney, Lehner). There are various sources in differing environments:

Home: faulty upbringing, unhealthy relationships, overprotection
School: teachers, faulty teaching methodology, denial of self-expression, classmates
Occupation: improper working environment, unsatisfactory relationships, dissatisfactory working conditions

“Frustration” refers to emotional tension resulting from non-fulfillment of desires or needs. (Good, 1959). It may be caused by failure to satisfy basic needs because of internal or external obstacles (Barney, Lehner)

External Factors: physical (natural calamities, accidents, injury), societal (norms and values that may restrict individual needs), economic and financial (unemployment, lack of money)
Internal Factors: physical abnormality or defects, conflicting desires, morality and high ideals, level of aspirations (inability to meet one’s aspirations). This often falls into five main triggers:
- Desire: something the character wants.
- Need: something the character requires for survival.
- Duty: some obligation the character feels is right or necessary.
- Fear or worry that drives the character.
- Expectation: the character feels they are obligated to something because of someone else.

Adaptation and Coping Mechanisms

“Adaptation” is the physical or behavioral characteristic of an organism that helps an organism to survive better in the surrounding environment. Adaptation occurs in various levels:

Adaptive: facing and finding solutions to situations
Less Adaptive: temporary use of defense mechanisms
Maladaptive: excessive use of defense mechanisms
Dysfunctional: ineffective use of defense mechanisms; results in negative ADL and social impact.

Crisis

When events causing anxiety becomes overwhelming and usual coping patterns become suspended. These may involve man-made and natural disasters, interpersonal events, traumatic experiences, etc.

Maturational Crisis: occurring as a normal part of growth and development e.g. leaving home for the first time, completing school, marriage, childbirth and rearing, beginning a career, etc. The successful resolution of these crises result in positive character development.
Situational Crisis: sudden or unpredicted events that threaten an individual’s integrity (physical, emotional, societal, economic, etc.).
Adventitious Crisis: unexpected unusual events that can affect an individual or a multitude of people; a social crisis e.g. natural disasters; societal injustices like racism, kidnapping, terrorism; violent crimes.

Stages of Crisis

Denial: an initial reaction of shock or disbelief.
Increased Tension: the recognition of the crisis; initial functioning remains adequate.
Disorganization: preoccupation with the crisis affects the individual’s functioning.
Attempts to Reorganize: the utilization of old and new coping mechanisms.

Psychodynamic Theories

These theories attempt to explain the emotional and mental forces (developing processes), especially in early childhood and their effects on behavior and mental states. Many relevant models in psychiatric nursing began with the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud. His theories have, over time, been improved by interpersonal and humanist models. They lacked in their initial purpose of etiologic explanation of mental illness, but became important in the development of therapeutic relationships, techniques, and interventions.

Psychoanalytic Models

Sigmund Freud

The founder of psychoanalysis. “The unconscious can be accessed through dreams and free association”. A personality theory and a theory of infantile sexuality was also developed. One of his greatest contributions was “talk therapy”, which stated that simply talking about their problems can help alleviate them.

Application: It is used as an individual therapy approach for the enhancement of personal maturity and personal growth.
Major Concepts: Personality Components (Id, Ego, Superego); Psychosexual Stages of Development; Anxiety and Defense Mechanisms; Free Associations, Transference, and Countertransference

Anna Freud

Sigmund Freud’s youngest child. “The application of ego and psychology to psychoanalytic treatment and child analysis with emphasis on the adaptive functions of defense mechanisms”

Application: individual therapy, child analysis
Major Concepts: refinement of concepts of anxiety and defense mechanisms.

Neo-Freudian Models

Alfred Adler

Founder of the school of individual psychology.

Application: understanding of human motivation.
Major Concepts: Inferiority

Carl Gustav Jung

Founded the school of psychoanalytic psychology. Developed new therapeutic approaches.

Application: assessment via the introversion and extroversion dimensions.
Major Concepts: redefined libido, introversion, extroversion, persona

Otto Rank

Introduced the idea of primary trauma of birth, active techniques in therapy including more nurturing (compared to Freud). Emphasized the feeling aspect of analytic processes.

Application: recognition of the importance of feelings in psychoanalysis.
Major Concepts: Birth Trauma, Will

Erich From

Emphasized the relationship of the individual to their society.

Application: individual desires are formed by society.
Major Concepts: the individual and their society are not separate entities.

Interpersonal Relationship Models

Harry Stack Sullivan

Application: framework for introduction of interpersonal theories into nursing.
Major Concepts: Participant observer, Parataxic distortion, Consensual validation

Humanist Theories

Abraham Maslow

Focused on the healthy rather than the sick. He utilized a holistic, dynamic viewpoint in approaching individuals.

Application: a model to understand how people are motivated and their needs that should be met.
Major Concepts: Needs, Motivation

Frederick S. Perl

Focused on the tenet that awareness of emotion, physical state, and repressed needs would enhance the ability to deal with emotional problems.

Application: used as a therapeutic approach to resolve current life problems that are influenced by old, unresolved emotional problems (incomplete Gestalts).
Major Concepts: Reality, “Here and Now” focus

Carl Rogers

He based his theories on the view of human potential for goodness, used “client” instead of “patient”, and stressed the relationship between therapist and client.

Application: individual therapy approach should involve never giving advice, and always clarifying the client’s feelings
Major Concepts: Empathy, Positive Regard

Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud, S.)

The personality is made up of various levels of awareness:

Consciousness: feelings, thoughts, and beliefs that the individual is aware of, concerned with the “here and now”. It functions when the individual is awake.
Preconscious: not aware at present, but may be recalled at will.
Unconscious: aspects of the person that they are not aware of.

Free Association

A tool used in psychoanalysis, aiming to deepen self-understanding by looking at whatever thoughts, words, or images come freely to mind. The therapist may ask the patient to share anything that is in on their mind such as memories, words, images, or daydreams. This may also be done with the therapist mentioning a single word, and asking what the first thought that comes to mind is for the patient.

Dream Interpretation

Originally used in psychoanalysis and spreading to other psychotherapies, the contents of dreams are interpreted to reveal underlying motivations or symbolic meanings and representations. Freud believed that dreams represent disguised fulfillment of repressed wishes, and that studying them provided the easiest road to understanding the unconscious activities of the mind.

Hypnosis

Guided relaxation, intense concentration, and focused attention to achieve a trance, considered as an aid to psychotherapy because of a “hypnotic state” that allows people to explore painful thoughts, feelings, and memories they might have repressed.

For reducing emotional distress, treatment of phobias, anxiety disorders, pain management, weight loss, smoking cessation, and other conditions.

Personality Components (Freud, S.)

Additional Reference: Lecturer (Jimenez)

Sigmund Freud’s (the father of psychoanalysis) psychoanalytic theory, a cornerstone of the field of psychology, seeks to provide insight into the intricacies of human behavior and mental processes. At its core, this theory revolves around the tripartite structure of the human psyche, comprising the id, ego, and superego. These components engage in dynamic interactions that significantly influence an individual’s personality and behavior.

Id: the unconscious level of awareness which is concerned with pleasure principles (biological), being primitive, uncivilized, and immoral. It demands immediate gratification of needs. The id represents the most primitive and instinctual aspect of the psyche.
- Present at birth
- Overdevelopment: narcissism, lawless, antisocial, irresponsible manipulative, liar, rebellious, revengeful
Ego: “self”; primarily conscious, but functions on all levels of awareness. Concerned with reality principles (psychological). It controls or delays the demands of the Id through delayed gratification. It is the rational and conscious part of the psyche, emerging in response to the demands of the external world. It satisfies the id’s desires in a socially acceptable manner while considering the potential consequences. It is the arbiter between the Id and the Superego.
Superego: primarily subconscious, but functions on all levels of awareness. Concerned with moral principles (social), the superego functions as the moral and ethical compass of the psyche. It embodies internalized rules and values, often influenced by societal and parental expectations. It enforces moral and ethical standards and can induce feelings of guilt or shame when actions violate these standards. It is the ethical component of the personality split between the conscience and ego ideal:
- Conscience: what is primarily or basically wrong.
- Ego Ideal: what is primarily or basically right.
- Overdevelopment: guilt-ridden, inhibited, withdrawn/isolated, shy, lack of self-confidence, depression, obsessive-compulsive, anxious, seeking to reach expectations of others.

These components frequently engage in conflicts, resulting in psychological tensions and impacting an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors:

Conflict between the Id and Ego: the ego must navigate a fine balance between fulfilling the immediate desires of the id and recognizing the constraints of the external world.
Conflict between the Id and Superego: the id’s pursuit of pleasure may collide with the moral values dictated by the superego, leading to inner turmoil.
Conflict between the Ego and Superego: the ego’s responsibility includes reconciling the demands of the superego with the realities of the external world, which can create internal strife when societal expectations diverge from personal desires.
Id Dominance results in conditions such as mania, antisocial personality disorder, and narcissistic personality disorder.
Superego Dominance results in conditions such as obsessive-compulsive disorder and anorexia nervosa.
Damaged Ego may result in the loss of basis in reality, producing disorder such as schizophrenia.

Psychosexual Stages of Development (Freud, S.)

Oral Stage: 1 to 1 ½ years old; regular feeding is very important
- Erogenous Zone: mouth; tension is relieved by sucking and fixation may be caused by insecurity in parting with the breast or bottle.
- Satisfaction: sucking, biting, crying; results in development of trust in later years
- Greatest Need: security
- Greatest Fear: separation anxiety
Anal Stage: 1 ½ to 3 years old
- Erogenous Zone: anus
- Satisfaction: control over defecation and urination; critical period for toilet training.
  - Anal-Retentive Personality: the child “lets go” of control. Results in a stingy, stubborn, compulsive need for orderliness; punctual and respectful to authority. May also include schizoid, schizotypal, and Superego personalities.
  - Anal-Expulsive Personality: the mother “lets go” of control. Results in a messy, careless, disorganized, and prone to emotional outbursts; inconsiderate to others. May include an Id personality.
- Greatest Need: power and control; development of Ego and Superego occurs due to introduction of the reality principle.
  - Toilet Training can be started once ready; the child should be able to stand alone, walk steadily, keep themselves dry (bladder control) in at least two hour intervals, demonstrate awareness of needing to defecate and void and the use of words and gestures to show it, and are desirous to please the caregivers.
    - Bladder Control: 18 months
    - Daytime Bladder Control: 2 ½ year old
    - Nighttime Bladder Control: 3 year old
Phallic Phase: 3 to 6 years old; the first period of realization of gender. Identification also occurs, where children incorporate the values of their parent of the same sex into their superego.
- Erogenous Zone: genital; sexual curiosity, consensual validation, castration anxiety/penis envy, oedipal/electra complex.
- Satisfaction: masturbation; provide privacy but attempt to distract when possible. Fixation results in narcissistic, vain, and proud personalities, fear or incapability in close love, and homosexuality.
Latency Phase: 6 to 12 years old
- Erogenous Zone: genital, but dormant/inactive.
- Satisfaction: acquiring knowledge, social skills (peer development), development of competence (in school and activities), character formation, achievements. Fixation results to immature behavior and less competence.
Genital Phase: 12 to 18+ years old
- Erogenous Zone: genitals
- Satisfaction: genitals; development of heterosexual relationships. Interest in the welfare of others develops during this stage.

Interpersonal Stages of Development (Sullivan)

Sullivan proposed that the “health” or “sickness” of one’s personality is determined by the characteristic ways in which one dealt with other people. He also posited that childhood experiences largely determines adult personality, with many problems in adulthood stemming from confusions of adolescence.

Infancy: a self-concept is developed. Mothering role is achieved by a self-concept of “Good Me” (interpersonal behaviors evoke minimal anxiety, and should be done). Inadequacy results in a “Bad Me” self-concept (interpersonal behaviors evoke moderate anxiety and highly devalued).
- Satisfaction: self-concept of a worthwhile individual
- Deprivation: a “Not Me” attitude develops, excluding interpersonal behaviors from awareness; maximal anxiety is evoked.
- Type of Play: solitary play
Toddler: a sense of power is developed as children attempt to control themselves and others.
- Type of Play: parallel play (playing with someone side-by-side and conversing/watching, but not playing together)
- Behavioral Traits: negativistic, active, mobile, curious (accident prone), and throws temper tantrums.
Pre-school Age: characterized by consensual validation, the use of language which can be consensually validated by others.
- Type of Play: associative or cooperative play
- Behavioral Traits: imitates adults, loves offensive languages, very creative and curious (“Why?”; questions about sex should be answered honestly at an appropriate conceptual level), very imaginative (imaginary playmates are common), and lies about fantasies to impress others.
School Aged (Juvenile): the age of gang formation and turning away from parents as the most significant people and to same-sex peers. The child acquires the ability to compete and compromise.
School Aged (Preadolescence): the age of developing intimacy. Children find “chums”, same-sex friends they perceive to be very similar to themselves with which they develop intense love relationships. They learn to put aside their needs for others.
Adolescence: developments of heterosexual relationships, where sexual urges (“lust”) may be felt.
Late Adolescence: the “age of majority”, where achieving independence is the focus, creating an adult self-concept. Develops capacity for mature emotional intimacy, while maintaining familial ties.

Stage (Epoch)	Age (years)	Significant Relationships
Infancy	0 to 1 1/2	Mother/Primary Caretaker
Toddler	to 3	Parents
Preschooler	to 6	Siblings, Relatives, Playmates, Teachers
Juvenile	to 9	Friends (gang/group formation)
Preadolescence	10 to 12	Close friends (“chum” formation)
Adolescence	to 21	Peers
Late Adolescence	21+	Partners, Loved ones, Colleagues

Interpersonal Relationships in Nursing (Peplau)

One of the early nursing theories published in 1952. Peplau devised four stages of the nurse-patient relationship where the nurse plays various roles. The nurse-patient relationship is influenced by various psychobiological experiences which require dynamism to be dealt with. Nurses have a special maturational strength for civilization because Peplau believes nurses are able to fulfill incomplete psychological tasks e.g. relying on others, showing satisfaction, self-identifying, sharing, etc. for patients.

Orientation: the nurse directs the patients in treatment, providing explanations and information, and answering questions.
- Problems and needs are clarified, questions are asked, routines and expectation of the institution are explained, and full participation is elicited.
Identification: the patient works interdependently with the nurse, expressing feelings.
- The patient responds to persons they perceive as helpful, they feel stronger, and roles of both the client and nurse are clarified.
Exploitation: the full use of the patient by all services offered.
- Goals such as “going home” and “returning to work” emerge. Patient behavior starts to fluctuate between dependence and independence.
Resolution: the patient no longer requires services, and gives up dependent behavior. The end of the relationship.
- The patient assumes power to meet their own needs, set new goals, and so forth.

Peplau also described the various roles nurses may take within a therapeutic relationship. She clarifies that this is not limited, and that nurses can take on many other roles.

Stranger: offering the patient the same acceptance and courtesy that the nurse would to any stranger.
Resource Person: providing answers to the patient’s questions
Teacher: helping the patient learn informally or formally
Leader: offering direction to the patient or group
Surrogate: substituting for another individual such as a sibling or a parent
Counselor: promoting health-promoting experiences e.g. the expression of feelings.

Psychosocial Stages of Development (Erikson)

Also known as the Eight Ages of Man, Erikson devised the various age groups and each one’s developmental tasks or goals and associated virtues.

Stage	Age	Task	Virtue
Infancy	0 to 1 1/2	Trust vs. Mistrust	Needs are met: trust develops. Hope and Faith
Toddler	to 3	Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt	Toilet training is successful: autonomy develops. Will and Determination
Preschooler	to 6	Initiative vs Guilt	Curiosity is supervised consistently: initiative and conscience develops. Management of conflict and anxiety. Purpose and Courage
School-Aged	to 12	Industry vs Inferiority	Efforts to learn are supported: industry develops. Competence, confidence, and pleasure in accomplishments
Adolescence	to 21	Identity vs Role Confusion	Sexual orientation, role performance, body image, and self-concept are well defined: identity develops. Fidelity and Loyalty
Young Adult	to 35	Intimacy vs Isolation	Relationships are satisfying: intimacy develops. Love
Adult	to 60	Generativity vs Stagnation	Sense of usefulness to others: generativity develops. Involves establishing the next generation. Care
Elderly	60+	Integrity vs Despair	Satisfying past recollection: integrity develops. Wisdom

Cognitive Theories

Cognitive Development Theory (Piaget)

Four stages of cognitive development in understanding the world, as posited by Jean Piaget; organization and adaptation allow us to make sense of the world.

Stage	Age (years)	World View
Sensorimotor Stage	0 to 2	Exploration— The child is only aware of what is in front of them. Children learn through sensory experiences and motor actions, developing object permanence (understanding that objects still exist even when out of sight).
Preoperational Stage	2 to 7	Imagination— The child is able to think symbolically. Children begin to use symbols and language, but struggle with abstract concepts and logical reasoning. They are egocentric (difficulty understanding perspectives other than their own).
Concrete Operational Stage	7 to 11	Logic— Children develop logical thinking skills, but primarily focused on concrete objects and events. They can understand concepts like conservation (understanding that the amount of something remains the same even if its appearance changes).
Formal Operational Stage	11 to 15	Abstraction— Individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, reason hypothetically, and engage in complex problem-solving.

Culture and social interaction lead cognitive development. He claimed that we are born with four “elementary mental functions”: Attention, Sensation, Perception, and Memory. Our environment (social and cultural) allow us to use these functions and to develop, leading to the development of higher mental functions. Development ideally occurs within the Zone of Proximal Development, where one is able to perform tasks with the aid of others (“The More Knowledgeable Other”), which eventually allows the individual to perform it on their own.

Information-Processing Theory

The mind is a system that processes information.

Stress Theories

Stress Response (Selye)

Also known as the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Theory of Stress

graph TD
1("Alarm Stage (Hormonal Response)")
2("Resistance (Organ Involvement)")
1-->2
2-->3
subgraph " "
	3(Exhaustion)
	3-->4
	3-->5
	4(Sympathetic Nerve Fibers Increase)
	5(Parasympathetic Nerve Fibers Decrease)
end

Alarm Stage: a stressor stimulates the hypothalamus to send messages to the adrenal gland for the secretion of adrenaline and norepinephrine (stress hormones). These stimulate the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver.
Resistance: more organs are involved; the lungs take in more oxygen, the heart beats faster and stronger, and the digestive system reduces in function to delegate blood to other body systems. If the stressor is adequately resolved or adapted to, stress responses abate.
Exhaustion: if adaptation does not occur and anxiety or stress remains, body stores are depleted, emotional components are unresolved, and arousal of the physiologic responses continue with a small reserve capacity.
- The autonomic nervous system is responsible for involuntary responses in self-preservation.

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping (Lazarus)

Stress is defined as a “particular relationships between the person and environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her wellbeing”. The effects stress has on a person is based on the person’s feelings of threat, vulnerability, and ability to cope.

Primary Appraisal: Is the threat significant, negative, and harmful or challenging? Anger, disgust, disappointment, worry, anxiety, fear responses, anticipation, illness, or even injury may occur if a threat is passes the primary appraisal.
Secondary Appraisal: What are the resources available for the individual to cope with the stressor? These may involve internal (willpower, fortitude) and external options (peers, support groups)
Problem-Based Coping: when the individual believes they have control over the situation i.e. they are able to manage the problem, they take steps to resolve it:
- Define the problem at hand
- Generate potential solutions
- Learn new skills to dealing with stressors
- Reappraise and find new standards of behavior.

Psychoneuroimmunology

A branch of psychology that explores the interactions between behavior, neural, endocrinal function, and immunologic processes. It posits that early lift stress, both psychological and physiological, affects PNI functioning.

Mneme

Explorer

Mental Health Theories